trauma -- and suggested the problem was widespread.

Ms Christine Stubbs of Warwick Academy, in a speech to Hamilton Rotarians, said trauma caused by people had far greater impact than any natural disaster.

No family was invulnerable, she warned.

Ms Stubbs said victims of trauma, or witnesses to acts of violence such as rape, assault, incest, sexual abuse or domestic violence, could suffer terrible emotional scars. Some scars were permanent.

She said traumatised persons are in a continual state of physical and mental exhaustion because of their constant attempts to find explanations or solutions for their situations.

"Witnessing violence has a severe impact,'' she said. "Repeated experiences, known as the Hammer Effect, raise the level of stress until it becomes a permanent condition.'' Ms Stubbs, speaking at The Princess Hotel, added that victims of trauma were constantly vigilant, irritable and distrustful. What relationships they had suffered greatly under the strain. In many cases, substance abuse, impulsivity, self-mutilation, lack of self-care and suicidal thoughts were prevalent. "This dysfunctional way of coping is passed down from generation to generation,'' she said.

Physically, trauma victims are prone to headaches, muscular tension, calcium depletion, digestive disorders, anorexia, bulimia and eye problems. There was also some medical evidence that extreme stress triggered diseases such as muscular sclerosis and cancer.

Children, said Ms Stubbs, were especially vulnerable to traumatic stress, which resulted in memory problems, a short attention span, nightmares, and insomnia. In violent homes, they often became the "early warning signaller'' for other members of their family.

The immediate response of some people to victims and witnesses of violence can intensify their feelings of guilt, helplessness and shame. They are often accused of lying or having a vivid imagination when they finally seek help.

"Friends and family don't want to believe what they are hearing,'' said Ms Stubbs. "At a subliminal level it's terrifying and painful for them to hear.'' This, she said, leads to the victim protecting the person from whom they sought help. Due to lack of support, they eventually become totally silent -- and increasingly at risk.

Ms Stubbs advised victims not to waste their time on people who will not listen to or help them, stop blaming themselves and to choose a trusted confidant. Above all, she said, victims should get help as quickly as possible.

"Life-traumas, very mildly described as `social problems', have been thought to be a disgrace and only applicable to lesser and weaker persons. This is not at all the case.

"Every day people of great and humble courage struggle to cope with the impossible. Often they neglect themselves and their own goals through pure exhaustion.'' Ms. Christine Stubbs.