FIFTY years after the US Supreme Court concluded, on May 17, 1954, that "separate but equal" schools were inherently unequal, Bermudian educators and activists generally take the view that societal progress in the intervening years has led to the substitution of economic segregation of schools for their segregation by race.

Imperfect as the situation in Bermuda was in 1954, it seemed better than the position in the United States. Minister of Cultural Affairs and former school principal Dale Butler believes that the long fight for equality in the US raised expectations to levels that were unlikely to be achieved, and contrasts the aftermath of the decision in Brown v Board of Education with the corresponding time in Bermuda.

"There were great expectations (in the black community) in the United States, because of the tremendous divide in education of the races, in terms of physical plant and academic resources and differentials in class sizes.

"There were expectations that if blacks had access to good schools with smaller classes, that you would see an improvement in the academic achievement of blacks. While that may have taken place over the short term, results indicate that such improvement has not been sustained over the long term.

"American blacks have realised that the value systems that were present in the segregated schools, and the heroes and role models that children could aspire to emulate in them, were diluted or entirely absent in more broadly-based integrated institutions, and that black children were expected to embrace a wide range of social values, rather than the traditional black values which were at the core of black education.

"At the end of the day, I think that many black Americans believe that the lesson since the decision in Brown is that they have lost more than they have gained."

Mr. Butler believes that the damage done to black children in America after Brown was two-fold: black children moved in to schools which were supposed to integrate, as white children moved out, and the new schools did not stress the value systems which had reinforced black schools. He saw some similarities in the experience of the first black Bermudian children who moved into formerly segregated private schools.

"Here in Bermuda, prior to the development of the middle schools, you had a number of blacks moving into white schools and doing fairly well, but I believe that a number of them came out of that experience with clear identity problems. They discovered, in some cases years later, that these schools did not reflect their heritage, and they deliberately returned to a more African-centred culture, even changing their names."

Mr. Butler described the Bermuda High School and Saltus Grammar School as institutions which came to understand that they reflected only one aspect of Bermudian culture, and began to make changes which would make all Bermudian children, and after the dramatic growth of the international sector, the children of foreign residents, feel that they belonged there.

"The private schools didn't intentionally cut black children off from their roots, but they just did not understand. Their level of awareness was not what it has been over these last five or ten years. These schools are making an effort to hire more black teachers, Warwick Academy too, and their concerts may include the singing of spirituals, and their art exhibits reflect black culture.

"These schools went through a transformation when they realised that they did not have an adequate number of black teachers, and that they did not reflect the broad-based culture of the different groups here, and the schools started to change the curriculum, and to invite black speakers to the school, so that they began to better reflect the various cultures. I mean, I was invited to Saltus to celebrate its Black History Month last year.

"These schools have moved away from their traditional stance, and realised that we are all important, and that it was appropriate to highlight the cultures of all of the children there, be they Bermudian, black or white, or British, or Indian, if they have students from there. There has been a transformation of thinking in Bermuda, to reflect the different ethnic cultures here.

"So, the long years since Brown have eventually led to a learning experience for white educators here. Their perspectives may have been broadened by attendance at courses here and overseas where they may have realised that their institutions were focused too much on themselves."

However, Mr. Butler believed that the popularity of the private schools had enforced a greater degree of integration by some whites into what had been predominantly or entirely black public schools, and that, overall, black children had been disadvantaged by integration.

"After the introduction of middle schools, we began to see more white children beginning to go to schools like Berkeley. With the private schools being full, and charging a lot of money, more working-class white children had no choice but to enter what had been predominantly black schools, and I think these kids are doing well in these schools.

"I think that in the black community today, I believe that more blacks feel that we have not really benefited from the integration movement in Bermuda. It's been a one-way street, and had these students, boys in particular, remained in predominantly black schools, we would have seen a difference, especially with the emphasis that was placed on respect for one's elders.

"Black children have lost out since they moved into the bigger pool. When they were more isolated in black schools, they were much more aware of the history of their people and institutions, their churches and clubs. That created a higher self-esteem, and in the bigger pool, they no longer heard about their own neighbourhood doctors and lawyers and teachers, and now there is a feeling in the black community that a lot has been lost by joining in that bigger pool."

Mr. Butler is confident that, broadly, the system is better and fairer than it was 50 years ago.He believes that he has benefited from a broad-based British education and from university education in the US, but that his good fortune has not been shared widely enough.

"Of course, I am hopeful, but the average Bermudian is not very confident that the integration process has benefited him. Children need to be mixed educationally, because they are children first, before they are white or black, Bermudian or British or Portuguese. They can learn from each other, and certainly I think that the next generation coming along will have a greater awareness and appreciation of each other.

"But there are things that are distinct in black culture that are not as distinct in white culture, and that black children need. They need to hear of their role models, because they don't see them reflected in the business community, or on television or the movie screen. When we reflected these people in our schools, it was not to say that we were superior, but that we did have role models from Africa to the West Indies to Bermuda. This made a difference in our lives, compared to now.

"Forty years ago, I was in a black school and there was nothing but pride and respect in that school. Now, in all of those schools, that sort of value system has broken down tremendously, and you see it reflected in society. The standards were set at (the) Victor Scott (school) by black teachers who told you that when doors previously closed by segregation were opened, you would have to be better, and so they set a higher standard.

"I will never forget a story told me by the late Lady Richards, the wife of Sir E.T. Richards. A student came to her and asked why they were being prepared to be secretaries when those doors were closed to them. She replied that when these doors opened, they would be ready. A very high standard was demanded, so that when these doors opened, black students had to be accepted."

Mr. Butler reached back much farther than Brown, to the emancipation of slaves in 1834. When blacks realised that emancipation was no precursor of equality, they built their own schools and institutions.

"There was then a greater acceptance by blacks of responsibility for their own future, compared to now, when everything is left to government. So, they built the schools, and teachers taught in these schools for practically nothing. They established their own economic foundations, and started numerous small shops and grocery stores.

"There was a thriving business community, and they built their churches, their clubs and their lodges. They were doing extremely well, but when we looked and compared ourselves, we thought the bone in our mouths did not have as much fat on it as the one reflected in the water, so we dropped the bone in our mouth, only to discover that it was a mirage in the water."

teacher and civil rights activist Mrs. Georgine Hill was in no doubt that the Brown decision and the progress of the US civil rights movement was profoundly important to Bermuda, and that the successes and failures of that movement were followed closely here.

"The fight for civil rights in the United States had a tremendous effect on Bermuda. As they seemed to progress, so did we. Those of us who were trying to make it happen here were encouraged by the progress made in the States. Of course, they took much more punishment over there, but we took some here.

"The educational system was thoroughly segregated here then. White people who could afford it sent their children to the private schools, and some schools, like Dellwood and (the) Gilbert (Institute) had a large majority of white working-class and Portuguese children.

"At that time, we were only beginning to think in terms of educating black children beyond elementary school. The junior high schools were just being created, and most children were not in school beyond the age of 13. I was teaching at St. George's and then Prospect, and I was one of the first to offer the extension courses which led to the GCE.

"I taught at the Girls' Institute, then by Alaska Hall, before it became the Prospect School for Girls, and, at first, I taught there for free to prove that there were people with talent here. Back then, there was a fee of, I think, ?5 per term at the Girls' Institute, and a lot of the girls worked to raise the money."

Hill seemed unconvinced that apparent progress over the years had produced a better educational product, and expressed some concern about the result of broader societal changes.

"The private schools have always represented something superior, although at the time I was teaching we had some very bright girls who have turned out very well, and are now part of the system running things, including Parliament.

"Unfortunately, the private schools, once they opened up to all children, became the goal for everyone who could afford to send their children there, so that at this point, almost 50 per cent of children attend private schools."

Mrs. Hill believed that the popularity of private schools should not, of itself, have affected the general quality of education in the public schools, but that it did have that effect, if indirectly.

"The private school experience is very selective, and where a child either conforms to the behavioural patterns expected of them, or is dismissed. The public schools have to take children as they come. The children are effectively segregated now by economics.

"Unfortunately, what used to be the top of various schools are no longer there to inspire the younger ones, because many of the best pupils are separated at 11 years old. A friend who was in the Boston public school system, who is now in a private school, tells me that the situation is very much the same there. Those who can afford to do so, leave the public system. I believe that more than 50 per cent are now in private schools there."

Mrs. Hill confessed to being very worried about the situation in Bermuda's public schools, and with negative societal changes that seemed difficult to address.

"I am quite worried about it. Extremely concerned. The change in behaviour has led to a wholly different situation now.

"I keep up with teachers in the system, and, from what I understand, it is a very difficult situation. I am very proud of those who are still training to be teachers. It has always been hard work, but now, in some cases, it is dangerous."

Mrs. Hill, born and raised in Boston, pointed out that there were so few options open to the women who comprised the great majority of teachers in segregated days, that they were bound to be seen as dedicated and exceptional.

"That is not in any way to denigrate those who are teachers now, but they are expected to be dedicated to a difficult job when so many other career options are open to them. Some of them start as teachers, and go on to become lawyers or whatever they want to be. They can even leave the country so easily. There are just so many more things a woman can do now.

"Again, the same thing has happened in Boston. My teachers there used to be the products of Harvard or Oxford, and they were very, very, bright people.

"Back when I started, when a person knew they had no other option before them, and knew they had no other way to make their living, they devoted their entire attention to that particular job. We were dedicated, but there was also nothing else we could do. And women go out to work in great numbers.

"I didn't start teaching until my children were in high school, or what was grade 7. I was home with them until then, and as a teacher, I was finished at the same time they were.

"There's a different family situation now. I am sure that is a large part of the problem. You used to know where your children were.

"Behaviour which might not be seen until children were 18 or 20, you now see at 13 or 14. It's partly about greater affluence, but more about the breakdown of the kind of training that young people used to have.

"There has been a general breakdown in social discipline, and, however well-trained teachers are, this is something they are going to come up against."

Smith, retired civil servant and political commentator, conceded that education had not been his professional field, but he certainly had vivid memories of growing up in a segregated community.

"When I came along, young blacks with ability were pressed to succeed, and were told they had to work twice as hard as whites, and all that. But, when I graduated from high school and went to work in the hotels, I was the only high school graduate there, black or white!

"That did not mean that clerical jobs were open to me, or any other blacks, at that time. We could be in service positions, bellboys or bartenders, and no one expected you to have a high school certificate. It was about 1950, so when I got a job at the Mid Ocean Club, the (white) clerical people looked at me in amazement, because I was more educated than they were.

"That may have been the case, but my white colleagues could eat in the dining room, and I couldn't. All white staff, of whatever level, were above any black staff member. Then I moved to Castle Harbour, where the dining room for blacks was a hole, a terrible dirty place. Again, white staff ate in a section of the main dining room. When I look back, I can hardly believe that it actually happened, but it did, because I lived though it!"

Mr. Smith was somewhat amused to reflect that, while that situation was outrageous and unfair in retrospect, he did not remember thinking so at the time.

"That's just how it was, and you had to expect these things from white people. You tried to go along to get along. I ran into a lot of difficulty. In those days , young black men were expected to learn a trade, make a good living, and build a house for their family. Young black women were expected to learn how to keep house, and if they were bright, they were expected to get a good education so they could help their man to succeed. So, women were encouraged to go to school.

"When I attended Berkeley, probably less than a third of the students were boys. The males who did manage to get in there were exceptional. We were held to be the 'cr?me de la cr?me' of the black school-age population.

"But from the very beginning, it was mostly women who were encouraged to learn to read and write, and boys were encouraged to learn a trade. It worked, in the sense that most black-owned homes built 50 years ago were built by the owners. They would work on them at weekends, and be helped by their friends, and it was a real co-operative effort."

Mr. Smith considers himself fortunate to have met, at the age of 16, his great Central school mentor, educator Victor Outerbridge.

The distinguished "products of his mentorship" apart from Mr. Smith, included Arnold Francis, the late Frederick Wade, and Sinclair Richards. He did not know if such powerful mentors were present in the current school system, and believed that any apparent progress in education would have come at some price.

"It's a trade-off. You give up something to get something. You hope you get more than you gave up, but you always give up something. What we had then was people in the community, of the community, who knew who you were, and knew everything about you. There were people who made sure we made the most of our God-given intelligence.

"The teachers were of the community. My first headmistress was Mrs. Robinson, the mother of Kenny Robinson, the lawyer, and her husband was the first principal of Harrington Sound School. There were no white people in the black schools, anywhere, and very few black expatriates.

"We had, then, something that was great. We were developing our own culture, and it was real. People got to know and respect the black headmaster, who never had any problem with staff taking orders from a black person.

"Today, you hear about staff having difficulty with that, and of course they don't, because they are used to situations like we had in hotels, where black people were never in charge. The black schools were built and manned entirely by black Bermudians."

Mr. Smith contrasted that situation with the educational circumstances of white Bermudians, most of whose teachers were white British expatriates.

"Since they didn't have to worry about getting jobs after school, their leadership could concentrate on providing the best possible education. Their teachers were paid better, and were provided with housing.

"One of the first casualties of integration was that black people, stupidly, thought that they should get white teachers in their schools. We thought that the white schools must be better, which they weren't, and our teachers had not just been educating kids, but teaching them how to get along and be a part of the community.

"They brought in foreign teachers, but they didn't know a damn thing about the community, so they could only teach the kids to read and write. In this so-called integrated society, the first thing we did was introduce a disintegrating force.

"The roots of current problems, particularly as they affect black males, started way back then, in the late 1950s or early '60s.

"That's where many problems started, because a lot of parents, particularly low-income ones, lost respect for the new teachers. In these days, the white teachers, wherever they came from, had to have come with attitudes about black people, and that must have been transmitted to the children.

"Imagine coming along in a society where the people regard you as a human being and they love you, no matter what is going on in the wider society. Suddenly, you have someone in the class room giving signals that you are something less than everybody else.

"Then along comes the international sector, and whatever they need in terms of personnel, they don't need black males who have learned trades.

"But the black female was educated and ready for these opportunities, and the men were not. It seems to me that if people come from an island, and the same gene pool, and a lot of males turn out to be dysfunctional, and the females don't, the problem lies in that society."