Published March 5, 2004

BERMUDA was presented with the still-current either/or choice on going to Independence or maintaining existing constitutional arrangements with Britain in 1973 after Whitehall reneged on promises to allow the island to pursue what was then known as Associated Statehood with the UK.

Associated Statehood was a short-lived British experiment allowing for full internal self-rule ? including local control of the police, militia and judiciary ? in colonial territories with the UK maintaining only its mandate for external security.

Following the protracted 1967/9 Anguilla crisis ? when that Caribbean island ultimately seceded from the newly created Associated State of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla and opted for the return of direct British rule, protesting it was treated as a colony by its larger neighbours rather than an equal partner ? Britain rethought its position.

Despite the fact Government Leader Sir Henry Tucker had been told in 1968 that Britain would favourably consider the idea of granting Associated Statehood to Bermuda, by 1973 ? following a series of riots, assassinations and social convulsions that had disrupted the island ? the Foreign & Commonwealth Office quietly retired the concept.

Associated Statehood, in the UK's view, would leave Britain in the unenviable position of retaining overall responsibility for Bermuda while stripping the UK of much of its constitutional authority to intervene directly during a crisis.

The FCO, enacting new policy directives of Conservative Prime Minister Edward Heath's administration, determined that further constitutional development in the handful of remaining colonies would entail one of two choices ? full sovereign Independence or the maintenance of the status quo, with Britain maintaining reserve powers for both internal and external security.

The issue of Bermuda's constitutional future became a pressing issue in early 1973 due to an unlikely catalyst ? the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).

A decision by the BOAC, Britain's state-run airline, to use Bermuda as a transit point on flights to Jamaica and Panama had resulted in both soft and hard drugs becoming freely available here for the first time.

Marijuana from Jamaica and heroin and cocaine shipped out of Central America were being smuggled onto US-bound flights at the Bermuda airport.

But the Bermudians recruited by Jamaican and Panamanian partners to co-ordinate the transhipment of drugs to the US saw an opportunity to earn even larger fortunes for themselves catering to a small but lucrative captive market on the island.

Soon these criminals were importing their own illicit caches for Bermudian domestic consumption in addition to exploiting security breaches at the airport to forward much larger shipments of narcotics on to the United States.

The United Bermuda Party Government, which had not been consulted by BOAC before the airline inaugurated its Jamaica and Panama runs, was incensed.

Premier Sir Edward Richards told then-Governor Sir Richard Sharples that BOAC's straight-arm approach to Bermudian considerations might force his hand and result in the UBP either taking the island to Independence or taking up the earlier offer of Associated Statehood ? constitutional moves that would have allowed the island to negotiate its own international airline routes.

Sharples was not unsympathetic to the Government's view of BOAC's tactics.

But the Governor informed the Premier that Britain would only allow Bermuda to move to full Independence ? ruling out what Britain now considered to be the unrealistic half-measure of Associated Statehood.

"BOAC is one of the irritants making the politicians look more closely at Independence," said Sharples in a lengthy despatch to the FCO on February 27, 1973. "Sir Edward Richards is fond of saying that BOAC is probably the one issue which would drive Bermuda to Independence...

"We could be entering fairly shortly into a situation where BOAC will become an emotional issue which will be used as a basis for a campaign to persuade the electorate that Bermuda should seek Independence.

"Sir Edward Richards told (Deputy Governor Ian Kinnear) the other day that he thought once the UBP decided as a party to go for Independence, a five-week campaign would be enough to assure a majority vote in favour of Independence at a referendum."

Sir Richard went on to say that there was widespread anger in Bermuda at BOAC and its indirect responsibility for the island's burgeoning drug problem.

"There is a very strong feeling that Bermuda is being 'used' by BOAC, which takes advantage of Bermuda as a transit stop but pays insufficient attention to Bermuda's own needs and, to make matters worse, never consults the Bermuda Government about proposed new services ? such as the one to Panama," he said.

"There is a genuine, but in my view unrealistic, feeling that Bermuda should insulate itself against the less desirable aspects of the outside world (the drug traffic in particular) by restricting its use as a transit point.

"This is tied up to an extent with the wish to maintain US customs pre-clearance and the obvious fact that the less Bermuda is used as a transit point from Central America and Jamaica, the less chance it has of becoming a transit route for drugs ultimately entering the United States.

While I can sympathise with the attitude, I find it hard to believe that the world's air routes can be planned on the basis of countries cutting themselves off from undesirable outside influences."

Nevertheless Sir Richard served notice on the FCO that if BOAC did not demonstrate some flexibility when it came to the routes run through Bermuda, Britain could expect "a head-on collision" between the island's politicians and the airline.

"This situation could escalate into an early demand for Independence," said the Governor. "So far as Independence itself is concerned, it would be unwise and unrealistic to stand in the way of Independence for Bermuda once it had expressed a clear wish to go that way.

"To do so would be contrary to the British government's stated policy (on decolonisation) in the United Nations and elsewhere; and it could cause a difficult situation locally and bring support for the dissident elements in the community with the possibility of an attendant internal security problem.

"While I believe it would be a mistake positively to encourage Independence I believe equally that it would be wrong to discourage it, both because this would be likely to encourage the Government to press for it ? but in the wrong atmosphere ? and because, given the right conditions, I believe there is much to be said for Bermuda going Independent.

"The attitudes of Bermudians have been conditioned in the past very largely by the interests of the white oligarchy which saw financial advantage from the link with sterling and political stability in the colonial relationship with Britain.

"This has led to a somewhat unreal situation of a viable, highly prosperous community remaining a colony and growing to accept a situation in which it remains dependent upon Britain to look after the not very pleasant task in a small community of maintaining law and order.

"I believe that Independence would bring with it a greater self-reliance and give impetus to the movement to bring the races together, more particularly if Bermuda went Independent under the present Government."

Sharples' assassination on the evening of March 10, 1973 put the emerging Independence issue into temporary abeyance.

Later in the year BOAC dropped the Panama route due to a combination of pressure from Bermuda and, more importantly, because it had proved to be financially disappointing.

But the question of Bermudian Independence did not entirely disappear along with the Central American flight.

The Bermuda Government, in the meantime having considered both the price and practicalities of sovereignty, opted not to pursue full Independence but rather lobbied the British to revive the offer of Associated Statehood.

In fact, a senior British official stationed on the island in late 1973 attempted to plead the island's case for a reconsideration of Associated Statehood with the FCO ? to no avail.

"I hope the following thoughts may be of some help to you: they are written on the presumption that you are prepared to review the whole concept of 'associated territory status' and would be prepared to be a little more flexible," said the British official in an October, 1973 communiqu? to the FCO.

"I should like you to consider two main lines of thought on which I feel reasonably sure the present Bermuda Government and I would agree.

"First, what the UBP might euphemistically wish to call 'Independence' (and) what purists in Whitehall might insist was something strikingly like 'associated territory status' is well worth closely examining because Bermuda really is different (emphasis in original) in a number of important aspects from the Caribbean islands you have been dealing with.

"Association was, as I understand it, regarded as a stepping stone to Independence for islands which were not viable either in economic or political terms because of their size and poverty, but which, it was hoped, could come together to make a viable economic and political partnership (as in the case of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla).

"Bermuda is geographically isolated and it may be argued that the concept of association cannot apply. On the contrary, I would suggest isolation makes it a special case to which there must be a special solution short of complete Independence, which they may not want, and which may be a nonsense in view of Bermuda's small size. The only answer seems to be an association.

"Further, 1). Bermuda has amongst the highest living standards in the world, not the lowest (now some 30 per cent higher than in the UK).

2.) Bermuda has chronic over-full-employment, and as far ahead as one can see will continue to have to import between one-fifth and one-quarter of her skilled labour; she does not suffer from chronic and apparently insoluble unemployment as do the Caribbean islands.

3). Bermuda's standards of literacy and sophistication in education are in another world from any of the Windward or Leeward Islands.

4). Bermuda's standards of efficiency, honesty and management in all of her affairs, especially the manning of Government departments, is incomparably ahead of anything anywhere in the Caribbean.

5). and most importantly, Bermuda always has, and as far as can be seen into the future, always will stand economically on her own feet. Bermuda has never asked for a penny of aid from Britain or from anyone else...

"Secondly, the geographic situation here is such that the British (Royal Navy) base (HMS Malabar), should you wish to retain it, could surely be considered as safe and as permanent as anything in this world can be, regardless of the political complexion of the local Government.

"From the strategic point of view, being only 600 miles off the American coast, Bermuda must surely be regarded as safe, or as unsafe, as the Brooklyn Navy Yard or Norfolk, Virginia.

"From the civil disorder point of view, one must bear in mind that HMS Malabar occupies nearly the whole of Ireland Island (and could acquire the rest, if desired), which is totally surrounded by open sea and only connected with the main island by an 18-foot bridge.

"To put it another way, the base can be completely supplied from the sea, to a large extent always has been, and short of building their own navy and airforce it is difficult to see how any Bermudian Government, however malevolent, could interfere with it...

"The crux of the whole question (therefore) comes down to the simple question, who is going to control the police and appoint the judges. The Governor, subject to the ultimate control of the UK; or the Bermuda sovereign Government?

"I think first it is necessary to clear away a bit of underbrush. One should ask, how far does the present Constitution de facto as well as de jure really safeguard UK interests (emphasis in original)? How big a revolution would it really be in fact to hand over control of the police and internal security to the Premier of Bermuda.

"Assuming both the present, able, honest and very conservative Premier (Sir Edward Richards) and the possibility of some future incumbent cut perhaps more in the (Maltese strongman Dom) Mintoff mould? I am bound to tell you the more I look at these questions, the more I feel the answers to them all are 'precious little'...

"In short, I am bound to say that in my view the present Government of Bermuda, and any foreseeable Government, will be more likely successfully to fulfil their responsibilities for internal law and order than four out of five governments anywhere in the Commonwealth.

"I am bound to say that I recommend we should offer to hand over (the Governor's reserve powers for internal security) to the Bermuda Government at whatever may be thought to be the most appropriate moment."

Despite making a strong and coherent case for Britain to consider granting Bermuda Associated Statehood based on the island's unique circumstances, the communiqu? received a frigid reception at the Foreign & Commonwealth Office.

"Bermuda has been informed on a number of occasions that Her Majesty's Government does not propose to create any more Associated States," reads an internal FCO memorandum drawn up in response to the communiqu?.

"...The despatch (like representations from Bermudian Ministers in the past) argues that we should not be influenced by the fact that Associated Statehood has not been a success in the Caribbean because Bermuda is completely different from the islands in the Caribbean.

"This may be how white Bermudians see things but not necessarily the majority of black Bermudians who form two-thirds of the population. They are of the same stock as those of African origin in the Caribbean and have more links with the Caribbean, including political links, than they have with the UK.

"Bermuda is certainly more affluent than the Caribbean countries but it has had its troubles, e.g. the 1968 riots which required the presence of British troops. This could happen again.

"We should also take into account that the (revolutionary) Black Beret Cadre is still in existence; that Bermuda's tourist industry could be on the decline (three hotels have, for the first time, had to shut for winter ? there may be more); the Government seems to be heading for trouble with the unions. These are all potential flashpoints. To make Bermuda an Associated State . . . could be offering a hostage to fortune."

The FCO formally responded to Bermuda's interest in Associated Statehood by reiterating that the island had a choice between Independence and maintaining the status quo.

There would be no third option for Bermuda.